1. Technical Field
The present invention relates generally to electronically erasable programmable read only memory (EEPROMS) and more specifically to bi-stable non-volatile electromechanical carbon-nanotube based EEPROMS.
2. Discussion of Related Art
Currently, most memory storage devices utilize a wide variety of energy dissipating devices which employ the confinement of electric or magnetic fields within capacitors or inductors respectively. Examples of state of the art circuitry used in memory storage include FPGA, ASIC, CMOS, ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, DRAM, MRAM and FRAM, as well as dissipationless trapped magnetic flux in a superconductor and actual mechanical switches, such as relays.
Important characteristics for a memory cell in electronic device are low cost, nonvolatility, high density, low power, and high speed. Conventional memory solutions include Read Only Memory (ROM), Programmable Read only Memory (PROM), Electrically Programmable Memory (EPROM), Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM), Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) and Static Random Access Memory (SRAM).
ROM is relatively low cost but cannot be rewritten. PROM can be electrically programmed but with only a single write cycle. EPROM (Electrically-erasable programmable read-only memories) has read cycles that are fast relative to ROM and PROM read cycles, but has relatively long erase times and reliability only over a few iterative read/write cycles. EEPROM (or “Flash”) is inexpensive, and has low power consumption but has long write cycles (ms) and low relative speed in comparison to DRAM or SRAM. Flash also has a finite number of read/write cycles leading to low long-term reliability. ROM, PROM, EPROM and EEPROM are all non-volatile, meaning that if power to the memory is interrupted the memory will retain the information stored in the memory cells.
EEPROMS are widely used within the computer industry to store a BIOS (basic input-output system) for a computer, sensor, or processing device, allowing it to load data and system instructions from other storage media when the unit receives first power after being in a quiescent state. The size of the BIOS is typically minimized in design because of the high cost of flash memory.
An EEPROM floating gate cell uses the presence or absence of electrons on a floating gate between the control gate and a FET channel to modulate the FET threshold voltage of a double polysilicon gate FET non-volatile storage device.
Non-volatile memory storage in products such as EEPROMs depends on significant charge transfer through the gate oxide of a storage device to and from a floating poly gate structure. Very high electric fields (>10 MV/cm for gate oxides) corresponding to high program/erase voltages in the range of 10 to 20 volts, for example, are required in the thin oxide structures of non-volatile storage devices to achieve charge transfer when cycling EEPROM storage devices between logical “1” and “0” states. By way of comparison, electric fields used in FET devices for volatile memory and logic operation are typically 5 MV/cm, corresponding to operating voltages of 5 volts or less. Trapping of electrons (and holes) in the gate oxide, sometimes referred to as the trap-up phenomenon, inhibits further tunneling injection and causes degradation in erase and program signal margins (difference between signals corresponding to “1” and “0” logic states) with cycling during memory operation, limits endurance, and slows performance [Ashok K. Sharma, “Semiconductor Memories, Technology, Testing, and Reliability”, IEEE Press, 1996, pp. 275-313; pp. 116-120]. Also, the charge transfer mechanism limits programming (write) and erase times to a very slow 10 us to 1 ms range.
Endurance limits refer to the number of times bits may be cycled between “1” and “0” logic states. Assuming that oxide rupture (shorting) due to high voltage is avoided, gate oxide charge-up reduces the difference in amplitude between “1” and “0” logic states until sensing becomes unpredictable. The number of cycles is typically in the 10,000 to 100,000 range, with some products achieving up to 1 million cycles.
Data retention degradation implies a loss of stored charge on the floating gate with time due to oxide damage resulting from a combination of high voltage and charge flow through the gate dielectric. Prevention of slow leaky bits requires oxides of high integrity, and product testing after a specified number of endurance cycles prior to product shipment.
Reading the logical state of the memory requires determining the state of an EEPROM storage device, and does not require gate oxide conduction. Hence, read times may be in the range of 1 to 50 ns, for example. However, trap-up phenomena may change the threshold voltage of the FET, resulting in decreased cell current, and corresponding read time degradation (increase).
The program (write) and erase mechanisms are inherently slow, typically in the 10 us to 1 ms range. Program and erase times degrade with time because of oxide degradation due to trap-up phenomena due to multiple write-verification cycles, such trapped charge alters the electrical characteristics of the FET channel region, reducing the signal difference between “1” and “0” logic states. This degradation results in multiple write-verification cycles to store information in some bit locations and corresponding performance degradation.
EEPROM products are required to operate from a single 5 volts (or lower) power supply source. Accordingly, high voltages in the 10 to 20 volt range must be generated by on-chip voltage generators and applied to array regions. These high voltage requirements stress non-EEPROM devices as well causing a higher failure rate in the supporting CMOS circuits. In addition, such high voltage requirements make it too difficult to embed EEPROM arrays in typical CMOS logic chips.
Consequently, existing technologies are either non-volatile but are not randomly accessible and have low density, high cost, and limited ability to allow multiple writes with high reliability of the circuit's function, or they are volatile and complicate system design or have low density. Some emerging technologies have attempted to address these shortcomings.
For example, magnetic RAM (MRAM) or ferromagnetic RAM (FRAM) utilizes the orientation of magnetization or a ferromagnetic region to generate a nonvolatile memory cell. MRAM utilizes a magnetoresistive memory element involving the anisotropic magnetoresistance or giant magnetoresistance of ferromagnetic materials yielding nonvolatility. Both of these types of memory cells have relatively high resistance and low-density. A different memory cell based upon magnetic tunnel junctions has also been examined but has not led to large-scale commercialized MRAM devices. FRAM uses a circuit architecture similar to DRAM but which uses a thin film ferroelectric capacitor. This capacitor is purported to retain its electrical polarization after an externally applied electric field is removed yielding a nonvolatile memory. FRAM suffers from a large memory cell size, and it is difficult to manufacture as a large-scale integrated component. See U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,853,893; 4,888,630; 5,198,994, 6,048,740; and 6,044,008.
Another technology having non-volatile memory is phase change memory. This technology stores information via a structural phase change in thin-film alloys incorporating elements such as selenium or tellurium. These alloys are purported to remain stable in both crystalline and amorphous states allowing the formation of a bi-stable switch. While the nonvolatility condition is met, this technology appears to suffer from slow operations, difficulty of manufacture and poor reliability and has not reached a state of commercialization. See U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,448,302; 4,845,533; and 4,876,667.
Wire crossbar memory (MWCM) has also been proposed. See U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,128,214; 6,159,620; and 6,198,655. These memory proposals envision molecules as bi-stable switches. Two wires (either a metal or semiconducting type) have a layer of molecules or molecule compounds sandwiched in between. Chemical assembly and electrochemical oxidation or reduction are used to generate an “on” or “off” state. This form of memory requires highly specialized wire junctions and may not retain non-volatility owing to the inherent instability found in redox processes.
Recently, memory devices have been proposed which use nanoscopic wires, such as single-walled carbon nanotubes (CNTs), to form crossbar junctions to serve as memory cells. See WO 01/03208, Nanoscopic Wire-Based Devices, Arrays, and Methods of Their Manufacture; and Thomas Rueckes et al., “Carbon Nanotube-Based Nonvolatile Random Access Memory for Molecular Computing,” Science, vol. 289, pp. 94-97, 7 Jul., 2000. Electrical signals are written to one or both wires to cause them to physically attract or repel relative to one another. Each physical state (i.e., attracted or repelled wires) corresponds to an electrical state. Repelled wires are an open circuit junction. Attracted wires are a closed state forming a rectified junction. When electrical power is removed from the junction, the wires retain their physical (and thus electrical) state thereby forming a non-volatile memory cell.
The use of an electromechanical bi-stable device for digital information storage has also been suggested (c.f. U.S. Pat. No. 4,979,149: Non-volatile memory device including a micro-mechanical storage element).
The creation and operation of a bi-stable nano-electro-mechanical switches based on carbon nanotubes (including mono-layers constructed thereof) and metal electrodes has been detailed in a previous patents and patent application of Nantero, Inc. (U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,643,165, 6,574,130, 6,784,028, 6,706,402, and 6,835,591, and U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. 09/915,093, 10/033,323, 10/341,005, 10/341,055, 10/341,054, 10/341,130, 10/776,059, 10/776,572, and 10/967,858, the contents of which are herein incorporated by reference in their entireties).